Vaccination, developing drugs, mono ant, plant dis + def

• What is the primary purpose of vaccination?

  Vaccination protects from future infections.
• What happens when a person is infected with a new pathogen?


  White blood cells take a few days to learn how to kill it.
• What does vaccination involve?

  Vaccination involves injecting amounts of dead or inactive pathogens.
• How do vaccines help the immune system?

  Vaccines force white blood cells to produce specific antibodies.
• What are the pros and cons of vaccination?

  Pros:

  • Vaccines have helped control communicable diseases.
  • Epidemics are prevented if the population is vaccinated.

  
  

  Cons:

  • Vaccines do not always work.
  • There can be rare bad reactions to vaccines.
• What is the purpose of drugs in treating diseases?


  Drugs relieve symptoms or cure the problem.
• What is the function of painkillers?

  Painkillers relieve pain and help with symptoms caused by pathogens.
• What do antibiotics do?


  Antibiotics kill bacteria but do not destroy viruses.
• What is antibiotic resistance?


  Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics through mutation.
• How can drug resistance occur in bacteria?


  Drug resistance can occur when bacteria mutate and become resistant to antibiotics.
• What are some sources of drugs?

  Some drugs are derived from plants and microorganisms.
• What is aspirin and where does it come from?


  Aspirin is a painkiller derived from a chemical in willow.
• What is digitalis and its source?

  Digitalis is used to treat heart conditions and is derived from foxgloves.
• What is penicillin and how is it produced?

  Penicillin is produced from the mold Penicillium notatum and kills bacteria.
• What are the steps in drug testing?

  1. Preclinical testing on human cells and tissues.
  2. Testing on live animals for efficacy and toxicity.
  3. Clinical trials on healthy volunteers.
  4. Randomized groups: one receives the drug, the other a placebo.
  5. Peer review and blind trials.
• What are monoclonal antibodies?


  Monoclonal antibodies are produced from clones of a single white blood cell.
• What is the significance of monoclonal antibodies being identical?


  All monoclonal antibodies target only one specific antigen.
• Why do lymphocytes not divide easily?


  Lymphocytes do not divide easily, but antibodies can be produced in large quantities.
• What is the purpose of fusing B-lymphocytes with tumor cells?


  Fusing B-lymphocytes with tumor cells creates hybridoma cells that produce antibodies.
• How are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests?


  Pregnancy tests detect the hormone HCG in urine using antibodies.
• How do pregnancy tests indicate a positive result?

  HCG binds to antibodies on the test strip, causing a color change.
• What are the uses of monoclonal antibodies in medicine?


  • Treat cancer by targeting tumor markers.
  • Deliver anti-cancer drugs directly to cancer cells.
  • Measure hormone and chemical levels in blood.
  • Test blood samples for pathogens.
  • Locate specific molecules in cells or tissues.
• What are the potential side effects of monoclonal antibodies?


  Side effects can include fever, vomiting, and decreased blood pressure.
• What mineral ions do plants need and their functions?

  • Nitrates: Needed for protein synthesis and growth; deficiency causes stunted growth.
  • Magnesium ions: Needed for chlorophyll production; deficiency causes chlorosis and yellow leaves.
• What types of pathogens can infect plants?


  Plants can be infected by viral, bacterial, fungal pathogens, or insects.
• What are the symptoms of plant diseases?


  • Stunted growth
  • Spots on leaves
  • Patches of decay
  • Abnormal growth
  • Malformed stems
  • Discoloration
• What are the types of plant defenses against diseases?

  **Physical Defenses:**

  • Waxy cuticles
  • Cell walls (cellulose)
  • Layers of dead cells around stems

  
  

  **Chemical Defenses:**

  • Antibacterial chemicals
  • Poisons to deter herbivores

  
  

  Mechanical Defenses:

  • Thorns and hairs
  • Drooping or curling at touch
  • Mimicking other plants